Milestone-Proposal:Parametron, 1954
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Docket #:2025-07
This proposal has been submitted for review.
To the proposer’s knowledge, is this achievement subject to litigation? No
Is the achievement you are proposing more than 25 years old? Yes
Is the achievement you are proposing within IEEE’s designated fields as defined by IEEE Bylaw I-104.11, namely: Engineering, Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Physical Sciences, Biological and Medical Sciences, Mathematics, Technical Communications, Education, Management, and Law and Policy. Yes
Did the achievement provide a meaningful benefit for humanity? Yes
Was it of at least regional importance? Yes
Has an IEEE Organizational Unit agreed to pay for the milestone plaque(s)? Yes
Has the IEEE Section(s) in which the plaque(s) will be located agreed to arrange the dedication ceremony? Yes
Has the IEEE Section in which the milestone is located agreed to take responsibility for the plaque after it is dedicated? Yes
Has the owner of the site agreed to have it designated as an IEEE Milestone? Yes
Year or range of years in which the achievement occurred:
1954
Title of the proposed milestone:
Parametron, 1954
Plaque citation summarizing the achievement and its significance; if personal name(s) are included, such name(s) must follow the achievement itself in the citation wording: Text absolutely limited by plaque dimensions to 70 words; 60 is preferable for aesthetic reasons.
The parametron, a logic element utilizing ferrite cores and parametric oscillation, was invented in 1954 by Eiichi Goto at the University of Tokyo for low-cost, stable circuits. In 1958, the PC-1, Japan’s first university stored-program computer, was built using 4,200 parametrons and became the nation's fastest computer. The parametron significantly shaped post-war Japan’s early computer development and scientific research, leaving a lasting technological legacy.
200-250 word abstract describing the significance of the technical achievement being proposed, the person(s) involved, historical context, humanitarian and social impact, as well as any possible controversies the advocate might need to review.
Parametron, invented in 1954 by Eiichi Goto, a graduate student at the University of Tokyo, is a logic element leveraging ferrite cores and parametric excitation for reliable, low-cost logical operations. By encoding binary states (0/1) through the phase of oscillation in a resonant circuit, it provided a stable alternative to the expensive vacuum tubes and unreliable transistors of 1950s computing. This innovation enabled 'majority rule logic,' supporting diverse computational functions with remarkable efficiency.
Its impact emerged in the PC-1, Japan’s first stored-program computer at a university, completed in 1958. Built with approximately 4,200 parametrons, the PC-1 was the nation’s fastest computer, featuring an arithmetic unit with high-speed carry propagation, and a pioneering AC-driven magnetic core memory with non-destructive reading and error correction for access, alongside interrupt-driven multitasking and concurrent execution of two instructions for enhanced speed. This breakthrough democratized electronic computing for natural science researchers across Japanese universities, who depended on it as a free resource.
Though overtaken by transistor advancements in the 1960s, the parametron’s influence persisted. It jumpstarted Japan’s computing infrastructure and fueled early scientific research, securing its place in technological history. This invention highlights how creative design can overcome practical limitations, leaving a lasting legacy in computing evolution.
IEEE technical societies and technical councils within whose fields of interest the Milestone proposal resides.
IEEE Computer Society
In what IEEE section(s) does it reside?
IEEE Tokyo Section
IEEE Organizational Unit(s) which have agreed to sponsor the Milestone:
IEEE Organizational Unit(s) paying for milestone plaque(s):
Unit: IEEE Tokyo Section
Senior Officer Name: Toshiro Hiramoto
IEEE Organizational Unit(s) arranging the dedication ceremony:
Unit: IEEE Tokyo Section
Senior Officer Name: Toshiro Hiramoto
IEEE section(s) monitoring the plaque(s):
IEEE Section: IEEE Tokyo Section
IEEE Section Chair name: Toshiro Hiramoto
Milestone proposer(s):
Proposer name: Chiaki Ishikawa
Proposer email: Proposer's email masked to public
Please note: your email address and contact information will be masked on the website for privacy reasons. Only IEEE History Center Staff will be able to view the email address.
Street address(es) and GPS coordinates in decimal form of the intended milestone plaque site(s):
Science Gallery, 1st floor (ground floor) of Building 1, Faculty of Science, The University of Tokyo. Address; 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033 Japan.
GPS coordinates; 35.7137465,139.7608399
Describe briefly the intended site(s) of the milestone plaque(s). The intended site(s) must have a direct connection with the achievement (e.g. where developed, invented, tested, demonstrated, installed, or operated, etc.). A museum where a device or example of the technology is displayed, or the university where the inventor studied, are not, in themselves, sufficient connection for a milestone plaque.
Please give the address(es) of the plaque site(s) (GPS coordinates if you have them). Also please give the details of the mounting, i.e. on the outside of the building, in the ground floor entrance hall, on a plinth on the grounds, etc. If visitors to the plaque site will need to go through security, or make an appointment, please give the contact information visitors will need. Building 1 of Faculty of Science, the University of Tokyo is where parametron was invented. There is now a space to display many discoveries made by the researchers there and this Milestone will be displayed there.
Are the original buildings extant?
No. The building was rebuilt about a few dozen years ago.
Details of the plaque mounting:
It is placed on the wall of so-called "Science Gallery" where many displays related to science are placed. See: https://www.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/gallery/
How is the site protected/secured, and in what ways is it accessible to the public?
Visitors can come to the Science Gallery without security check.
Who is the present owner of the site(s)?
Shin-ichi Ohkoshi Dean of School of Science, the University of Tokyo
What is the historical significance of the work (its technological, scientific, or social importance)? If personal names are included in citation, include detailed support at the end of this section preceded by "Justification for Inclusion of Name(s)". (see section 6 of Milestone Guidelines)
Justification of name-in-citation
Eiichi Goto: Pioneer of Parametron Technology and Early Computers
Eiichi Goto (1931–2005), a Japanese scientist, invented the parametron in 1954 as a graduate student and spearheaded the development of the PC-1, the first fully programmable stored-program computer at a Japanese university to utilize this technology, completed in 1958. His innovations catalyzed advancements in Japan’s post-war computer industry, enhancing scientific research and industrial capabilities during a critical period of technological recovery.
Invention of the Parametron
In 1954, Eiichi Goto invented the parametron, a logic device leveraging nonlinear parametric oscillation with two ferrite cores [1–3, P1–P2]. Unlike the vacuum tube and early transistor circuits prevalent at the time, the parametron offered remarkable stability, requiring minimal maintenance compared to vacuum tubes and costing significantly less than both vacuum tubes and nascent transistors. Its simplicity and reliability made it an ideal foundation for computer design. Early applications showcased its superior fault tolerance over competing technologies, such as vacuum tubes, electromechanical relays, and unstable point-contact transistors. Driven by a desire to construct an electronic computer within the constrained budget of Takahashi’s laboratory at the University of Tokyo, Goto and his mentor, Takahashi, exhaustively explored affordable solutions; the parametron emerged as a breakthrough, laying a critical foundation for Japan’s post-war computing advancements.
Development of the PC-1 Parametron Computer
In 1958, Eiichi Goto led the development of the PC-1, a pioneering fully programmable stored-program computer powered by 4,200 parametrons [4–9, 11]. Representing a significant advancement in post-war Japanese computing, the PC-1 outperformed emerging transistor-based systems in stability and featured a meticulously crafted instruction set, created by study of machines like the EDSAC [M. V. Wilkes et al., 1951] by Goto, Takahashi and the rest of the team. The parametron’s inherent stability and multi-input capability enabled reliable, straightforward logic circuit design, exemplified by the 1959 implementation of an interrupt function—among the earliest of its kind—facilitating multitasking between the main program and I/O handling. Unlike the complex, maintenance-intensive vacuum tube computers of the era, the PC-1 achieved high reliability with fewer components, low power consumption, and exceptional fault tolerance, ensuring sustained operation in a university laboratory environment.
Photo 1 Eiichi Goto and the PC-1 Parametron Computer (Source: Information Processing Society of Japan)
Photo 2 Eiichi Goto adjusting the memory section of Parametron
computer PC-1 (Source: Information Processing Society of Japan)
PC-1 was used by many scientific reseachers after it became
operational in March 1958. It had profound impact on the Japanese
computer industry and scientific community. Details of the PC-1,
especially the software side, are thoroughly described in Eiichi
Wada's lecture materials from the Parametron Memorial Lecture held in
2008, commemorating 50 years since PC-1's implementation [11].
Influence of Parametron Technology and Goto's Achievements
The parametron’s affordability, minimal maintenance, and operational stability swiftly captured Japanese industry attention following Goto’s initial presentation at a Japanese conference. Commercial entities soon adopted the technology, developing and marketing computers and calculators based on it (see Appendix I for examples).
At a time when vacuum tubes demanded frequent upkeep and early
transistors proved costly and unreliable, the parametron filled a
critical niche, earning Goto the prestigious IRE Browder J. Thompson
Memorial Prize in 1961 [A1] for his seminal paper, “The Parametron, a
Digital Computing Element Which Utilizes Parametric Oscillation”
[Proc. IRE, Aug. 1959]. This accolade underscored the technology’s
profound impression on both industry and academia, cementing Goto’s
reputation as a visionary innovator.
Conclusion
The parametron profoundly shaped Japan’s post-war computer industry, with its influence extending internationally through U.S. patents. As its sole inventor, Eiichi Goto elucidated its principles in his landmark IRE paper and led the Takahashi Laboratory team at the University of Tokyo in creating the PC-1. Given his pivotal role in this enduring technological achievement, Goto’s name merits inclusion in the IEEE Milestone citation, honoring his lasting legacy in computing history.
Historical Significance
Background
The parametron is a logic element that utilizes the parametric excitation phenomenon, leveraging the hysteresis characteristic of ferrite cores. It was invented in 1954 by Eiichi Goto, who was then a graduate student at the University of Tokyo's Graduate School of Science.
In the 1950s, when computers were in their infancy, constructing a
flip-flop in Japan cost around 1,000 yen for a vacuum tube and several
thousand yen for a transistor. At the time, point-contact transistors
were unreliable and unstable. The earliest junction-type transistors
coexisted with point-contact transistors and were slow, so despite the
instability, point-contact types were used for computers.
At the Takahashi Laboratory of the University of Tokyo, where Goto
studied, there was a keen interest in computational machines. Various
devices, such as a computer using a rotary switch from a telephone
exchange and a decimal computer using decatron tubes, were examined
and manually simulated. Eiichi Goto's knowledge of physics and applied
mathematics was invaluable during this time. Consideration was given
to using ferrite cores, which cost only 5 yen each [3], leading to the
conception of utilizing the parameter excitation phenomenon.
Consequently, the element was named the parametron.
Structure and Principle of Parametrons
Two donut-shaped ferrite cores were each wound with a wire of the same number of turns. Two cores were required to cancel the original oscillation of the excitation (the wire turns for two cores were configured in opposite directions.)
Figure 1 Parametron (Source: Information Processing Society of Japan)
When the resonant frequency of the circuit, composed of ferrite cores
and parallel-connected capacitors, is frequency (f/2, f/2), then we apply
external oscillation of frequency (f, f) to the ferrite core.
These ferrites were connected in series. A single capacitor was connected
to form a resonant circuit. An excitation wire passed through the
core's hole, and when alternating current (precisely, a combination of
direct current that changed the inductance of the core and alternating current) flowed through it, the
magnetism of the ferrite core caused the resonant circuit to oscillate
due to parametric excitation.
Separate wires may be used for direct current and alternating current.
Oscillation at half the frequency of the original external vibration
is amplified and observed.
Information can be stored by correlating the logic
states 0 and 1 with the difference of the phase of induced oscillation.
[Remarks] A matchstick is included in the photo for size comparison.
Photo 3 Parametron in PC-1 Computer (Source: Information Processing Society of Japan)
As described, in addition to the property of stabilizing into two
clearly distinct states, the parametron exhibits an amplification
effect where differences in the initial state during excitation
determine the phase outcome.
This is useful to connect the output from a parametron to another
parametron where a new oscillation was to be started.
With parametron that uses the phase of the oscillation to distinguish
0/1 value as digital signal, logical operations called "majority rule logic" can be performed.
Goto and others developed the full theory of this majority rule logic
based on parametron to design logic circuit.
While parametron logic was developed through theoretical and
experimental efforts, it was very fortunate that the very
first ferrite used in the first experiment for parametron was a copper-zinc type,
developed by Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei, which later turned out be
verified to be best suited for parametrons among comparable ferrite
cores available at the time.
Although manganese-zinc and nickel-zinc ferrite have superior properties for other applications, copper-zinc ferrite proved best for parametrons [5] [Note 8].
To facilitate large-scale use in computing machines, smaller cores
were preferable for reduced power consumption, leading TDK (Tokyo Denki Chemical
Industry)to manufacture cores with a diameter of 4 mm. Later, the PC-2 used a "glasses-shaped core" specifically designed for parametrons.
Parametron called as shaped like glasses marked with red rectangle.
4 φ core was the standard parametron initially.
2 φ core was used for memory.
Quoted from p.88 of Jiro Futami and Ryuji Shiozawa, "Parametron",
Hitachi Review, Feb 1960, vol 34. p.88, Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Parametron circuit
Parametrons are digital logic circuits that use nonlinear
elements. So, they were applied to the realization of logic and counting circuits.
They are characterized by high fault tolerance and low energy consumption in comparison to vacuum tubes.
Basic Structure and Operation of Parametrons
Parametrons are typically designed as two-terminal elements and are primarily constructed using capacitors and transformers. These elements transition between different "energy states," with the internal state changing in response to an external driving signal (input signal). Specifically, the amplitude and phase of the input signal allow the parametron to hold two stable states (0 and 1) and perform logical operations by transitioning between them.
The parametron circuit has the following characteristics:
(a) Nonlinear operation:
Parametrons respond non-linearly to external input signals. This property enables their use in logic circuits.
(b) Stability:
Parametrons are quite resistant to external noise and unstable signals, offering high fault tolerance.
(c) Low power consumption:
Parametrons consume very little power during operation, which made them particularly attractive in electronic circuits of the early days of computing.
Counting Circuits Using Parametrons
As a prototype of later computer, a simple counting circuit was developed using parametrons. When parametrons were used to create counting circuits, the design focused on the following key features:
(a) Counting circuits:
Parametron-based counting circuits combine multiple parametron elements to track the increase or decrease of a number. These circuits repeat transitions between the states 0 and 1 as counting progresses, enabling integer counting.
(b) Digital logic circuits:
Parametrons can serve as basic logic gates (e.g., AND, OR, NOT), which can be combined to create more complex computational circuits, such as adders and multipliers.
(c) Advantages of parametrons:
Compared to conventional circuits that use vacuum tubes and transistors, parametron circuits offer enhanced stability and resistance to noise.
The success of the counting machine encouraged the people at Takahashi laboratory and thus the construction of fully programmable stored-program computer PC-1 began.
The Birth of Parametron Computer: PC-1
The PC-1 (Parametron Computer No.1) is a fully programmable stored-program computer for scientific computing, assembled in the Takahashi Laboratory, Faculty of Science, at the University of Tokyo. Using a total of 4,200 parametrons, production began in September 1957, and the first computation was performed on March 26, 1958.
[Remarks] Dr. Eiichi Goto (Left) and Prof. Hidetoshi Takahashi (right) in front of Parametron computer PC-1
Photo 4 PC-1 Parametron Computer (Source: Information Processing Society of Japan)
[Remarks] A vacuum tube is included in the photo for size comparison.
Photo 5 Adder using parametron (Source: Information Processing Society
of Japan)
Subsequently, multiplication and division circuits were added, and
finer adjustments were made to each part. Materials such as
parametrons, exciters, and input/output devices were borrowed from the
following companies.:
- Toyo Soda Industries,
- the International Telegraph and Telephone Company,
- the Parametron Research Institute,
- Japan Electronics Instruments, etc.
Additionally, measuring instruments were borrowed from the Telecommunications Research Laboratory of the Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation, and some were purchased with the Asahi Science Grant.
It took a total of about 300 person-days to assemble the computer, with
the parametron circuit wired by a worker experienced in wiring relays
at Fuji Tsushinki. The assembly and adjustment of the magnetic core
memory device were performed by staff from Tokyo Denki Kagaku Kogyo.
The parametrons used in the PC-1 were of the early type, produced at
different times and with irregular characteristics. Despite the
challenge of assembling all circuits by hand in a university
laboratory, there were no significant failures in 1958, except for
issues with the exciter and the input/output device that used vacuum
tubes.
Notably, the AC magnetic core memory device was surprisingly stable
and reliable in comparison to similar devices. One reason for this
stability was that, despite using 41 vacuum tubes in total, the main
memory system adopted a circuit that applied error-correcting code to
its operation, ensuring functionality even if one vacuum tube failed.
The performance figures of the PC-1 is detailed in the attached table.
It used a binary representation internally. (Note that there were
transistor-based computers that still used decimal digits
representation internally at the time.) PC-1 was a fully programmable stored-program
computer with fixed-point arithmetic only. In 1958, it was the
fastest computer in Japan and the only electronic computer available
to researchers at the University of Tokyo. Thus it was used
frequently by the researchers there and from other universities.
In 1958, the PC-1 was operated for 9-12 hours a day, with 5 hours
dedicated to various numerical calculations for the Faculty of Science
at the University of Tokyo. The remaining time was used for program
research in the Takahashi Laboratory. From October 1958, about 10
hours per week were devoted to practical training for students.
In addition to using parametrons, the PC-1 had the following features [11]:
Table PC-1 and planned PC-2 Features
High-Speed Memory Device: AC magnetic core memory
For PC-1, an alternating current (AC) magnetic core memory device was used, a method invented in the Takahashi laboratory. Alternating current means the use of AC signal to read the data stored in core as the direction of magnetization. It used non-destructive read method as opposed to the direct-current destructive read method common to the core memory device used elsewhere in the world at the time.
The use of AC current for reading made the output quite friendly to the input to parametron device because the read signal from the core memory device was an oscillation wave unlike the DC current reading method.
By finding excellent magnetic
material suitable for this method through the help of TDK and using a
address selection circuit that applied an
error-correcting code at runtime, the device achieved exceptional stability and
reliability. The storage device was relatively small and reported at
the symposium on electronic computer storage in the fall of 1957 and
the Annual Meeting of the Four Electrical Societies of Japan in May 1958.
Arithmetic Circuit
The arithmetic circuit employed a fast carry propagation circuit that
handled carry separately. (Basically a carry lookahead circuit, but
back then there were some variations and Goto et al came up with their
own implementation using majority rule logic of parametron.).
Additionally, a control system was adopted
that simultaneously managed ongoing calculations and those to be
performed next. This was basically a pipelining at a very shallow depth of two.
This improved the calculation speed of the parametron computer by 2 to
3 times compared to systems not using these methods, without
significantly increasing the number of parametrons required. In 1958,
these methods were being studied in various foreign countries and
could be applied to electronic computers using any kind of element,
not just parametrons.
Interrupt
Later in 1959, an interrupt circuit was installed so that the event from
the attached tape reader "interrupted" the on-going execution of an instruction.
When this happens, further interrupt was prohibited by a flip-flop,
and then the next instruction address is saved into address 510, and a pre-installed
interrupt handler whose address is in address 511 is invoked
(actually basically control jumps to the address stored in 511).
In this manner, the pending input from tape reader could be handled,
e.g., put into a ring buffer that is accessed both by the main program
and the interrupt handler.
This is basically the operation called later multi-tasking.
PC-1 was one of the earliest computers to realize multi-tasking using interrupt.
Plan for PC-2
In 1958, Goto and others began planning to build a more powerful machine based on the experience and results of the PC-1. The machine was named PC-2. Although the computation and storage methods of the PC-2 were not substantially different from those of the PC-1, the plan was to increase memory capacity as shown in Table 1, provide a high-speed I/O device, and add a floating-point computing unit and an address translation mechanism.
This time, however, the construction was solely assigned to an external company.
PC-1 as a research vehicle of parametron performed very well. It was
finally disassembled when its power unit was rented to an exhibit done
by physic students during an annual open house event at the University
of Tokyo in May 1964.
Historical Impact of Parametron Computer
The ability to construct computers with a greatly reduced number of vacuum tubes and transistors led to the creation of many parametron-type computers in Japan at that time. Compared to relay-based systems, parametrons were faster and had no mechanical contacts, offering great advantages.
Despite the relatively short period of time while parametron enjoyed success, these computers were sold in the market. A detailed list of these commercial computers is shown in Appendix 1.
However, the rapid performance improvements of junction transistors, which became mainstream shortly afterward, outpaced parametrons in operating frequency. Transistors had broader applications, such as in radios, while parametrons were dedicated to the use as logic elements. Thus the investment on R&D of transistors far outweighed that of parametron. By the mid-1960s, parametrons were almost entirely replaced by transistors and fell into disuse.
It should not be forgotten that parametron's impact was also human resources and science computing. Many future computer scientists/engineers were born among the early users of PC-1, the stored-program parametron computer. Many of them were graduate students. Also, many researchers created scientific computation library routines.
Only very sketchy information in the early days of PC-1 computing remain today. But there is a record of a seminar on programming organized by the Japanese Society of Physics in 1959. That used PC-1 as the target computer to write programs.
The seminar was held from Aug 31 to Sept 7 in 1959. I am quoting only the titles of the lectures. [REF： (IIJLAB 2008, パラメトロン計算機 PC-1 1958-2008 パラメトロン計算機記念会, https://www.iijlab.net/~ew/pc1/pc150th.pdf), This shows the impact PC-1 had on Japanese academia, in this case to physical sciences.
Introduction to Electronic Computing by Hidetosi Takahasi Arithmetic Instructions for the Parametric Computer PC-1 by Eiichi Goto Experience in using electronic calculators by Takehiko Shimanouchi Applications to Geometric Optics, etc. by Bunji Okazaki Application to Crystal Analysis by Yoshio Takeuchi Numerical Analysis for Computers I (Linear Computation) by Shigeichi Moriguchi Numerical Analysis for Computers II (Numerical Integration and Differential Equations) by Ayao Amemiya and Masataka Ariyama How to make programs (flow charts and their examples) Yoshihiro Ishibashi Application to Meteorology by Kikuro Miyakoda Application to Fluid Mechanics by Isao Imai How to program (how to use subroutines) by Takashi Soma How to make programs (how to make tapes using R0 R1) by Keisuke Nakagawa Electronic Computing in Universities I by Yonezo Morino Electronic Computing in Universities II by Mitsuro Omori and Shigetoshi Katsura Monte Carlo Method by Yoichi Fujimoto and Eiichi Goto Applications to Quantum Mechanics by Masao Kotani Applications in OR and Control Engineering by Koh Hosaka How to find errors in programs by Eiichi Wada Future computers and programming by Hidetosi Takahasi Panel Discussion "Current Status and Future of Computers Chair: Takahiko Yamamouchi Panelists Takashi Isobe (The Univ. of Tokyo), Koh Hosaka (Technical Research Institute of the Japanese Natinal Railways), Hidetosi Takahasi (The Univ. of Tokyo), Shigeichi Moriguchi (The Univ. of Tokyo), Masao Kotani (The Univ. of Tokyo), Hiroshi Wada (Electro-technical Laboratory, ETL), Zen'ichi Kiyasu (NTT), Takeshi Kayano (NTT)
The list of available routines and the type of calculations
performed on PC-1 is in Appendix II.
What obstacles (technical, political, geographic) needed to be overcome?
Obstacles (Technical, Political, Geographic) Needed to Be Overcome
The parametron, invented by Dr. Eiichi Goto in 1954, is recognized as
a significant milestone in the history of logical device for electronic computing. This pioneering technology faced numerous obstacles on its path to success, spanning technical, political, and geographic challenges.
Technical Obstacles
Material Limitations
During the early 1950s, the materials available for electronic components were limited. The parametron, which relied on the parametric excitation of non-linear inductance to achieve switching, required high-quality inductors and capacitors. The scarcity of high-quality materials and the limitations in manufacturing technology posed significant challenges. Achieving the necessary precision and reliability in component fabrication was a major hurdle.
As Goto mentioned later, he was lucky to use the right ferrite material as far as the ferrite core, the essential part of his parametron device, was concerned. He picked up a ferrite core very suited to parametron his first experiment. Had he not used the particular material, the search for the right material alone may take a couple of years, thus missing the opportunity to fill in the gap between vacuum tube and transistor with very reliable parametron device.
Design Complexity
The parametron's design was intricate and required a deep understanding of non-linear dynamics and resonance phenomena. This complexity made the design and construction of practical Parametron circuits challenging. Researchers had to overcome the difficulties of designing circuits that could maintain stability and reliability under varying operational conditions.
But, once the circuit was designed properly with well selected proper material,
parametrons performed very reliably.
This was the key reason the stored-program computer built at a
university laboratory operated so successfully without any dedicated
operator. The graduate students and the researchers there helped the
external science researchers who ran long-running computer programs.
Thermal Management
The operation of the Parametron involved significant energy dissipation, leading to heating issues. Effective thermal management was crucial to ensure the longevity and reliability of the Parametron circuits. Designing cooling mechanisms and optimizing the thermal performance of components were critical technical challenges.
In the case of the PC-1 computer mentioned in this submission, it did not push the speed limit much. Thus, this computer at the University of Tokyo, employing approximately 4200 parametrons did not suffer from catastrophic heat failure.
According to a memoir by Keisuke Nakagawa (IIJLAB 2008, パラメトロン計算機 PC-1 1958-2008 パラメトロン計算機記念会, https://www.iijlab.net/~ew/pc1/pc150th.pdf), who was a graduate student at Takahashi laboratory where PC-1 was placed, "PC-1 came to be used by researchers of the Faculty of Science for their research. The computer time was made available even during night hours. PC-1, despite the meager 512 words storage (one word was 18 bits), allowed scientists to do variety of computations in many fields. PC-1 operated in a room without a special air conditioner for it. People opened windows during summer, but closed the windows with steam central heating running during winter. But PC-1 kept running demonstrating parametron's stability to the world. However, if PC-1 showed flaky behavior, available graduate students followed the predefined recover steps so that PC-1 ran again." (in submitter's translated summary from the original Japanese).
Mr. Nakagawa was a graduate student back then.
Integration with Existing Technology
The Parametron was a novel technology that needed to be integrated with existing computing systems and peripherals. Ensuring compatibility with the infrastructure of the time, including input/output devices and memory systems, required innovative solutions. Researchers had to bridge the gap between the new Parametron technology and the established electronic computing landscape.
These are the issues any new logic device technology faces, so not a particular obstacle specific to parametrons.
PC-1 computer that was built with parametron was connected to a paper tape
reader, and teletype writer device and so the interafaces with simple
I/O devices were available.
Miniaturization
Early electronic components were bulky, and miniaturizing the parametron circuits was a daunting task. Reducing the size of the parametron while maintaining its functionality and performance required advancements in component design and fabrication techniques. This miniaturization was essential for making the parametron commercially viable and practical for real-world applications.
Unfortunately, obviously, in the long run, there was no chance for ferrite core parametron to compete with the transistor in the miniaturization race.
However, later in the 1990s, miniaturized superconducting device was used
to create a parametron like
behavior, and is still a hot topic. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_flux_parametron,
Adiabatic Quantum-Flux-Parametron: A Tutorial Review
https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/transele/E105.C/6/E105.C_2021SEP0003/_pdf/-char/en
Political Obstacles
Cold War Era: The development of the Parametron occurred during the
Cold War, a period marked by intense geopolitical tensions between the
Eastern and Western blocs. This political climate influenced research
priorities and funding allocation. Gaining support and resources for
parametron research in Japan, which was rebuilding its economy and
technology sector after World War II, was a significant challenge.
Funding and Resources
Securing funding for innovative research was a constant struggle in post-war Japan. Government and institutional support were limited, and researchers often had to rely on private industry partnerships and international collaborations. Convincing stakeholders of the potential benefits and applications of the Parametron required substantial effort and persuasion.
Goto himself and the laboratory of Professor Takahashi back then was lucky to obtain a few big corporate backing after initial report of Goto on the principle and experimental result of parametron device caught the eyes and ears of the people of a big research laboratory, Musashino Laboratory of NTT, a large telephone operator Kokusai Denden, and others. This backing helped parametron take off.
Many private companies adopted parametron to build computers and calculators soon.
Also, after parametron became famous, a non-profit organization OUTSIDE
the University of Tokyo was established to handle the funding and
intellectual property issues, which lead to the next item.
Intellectual Property and Collaboration
Navigating intellectual property rights and fostering collaboration with international researchers were political challenges. The exchange of knowledge and technology between countries was often hindered by political considerations and restrictions. Establishing frameworks for collaboration and ensuring the protection of intellectual property were critical for advancing Parametron research.
Because the significance of parametron was so clear to the early adopters, they began helping Goto patent the inventions. To proceed with international patenting, an outside NPO called Parametron Research Laboratory (tentative English translation) was formed in Mar 8, 1957 [REF. Takahashi, 電子計算機の誕生、中央公論社, 1972. p.78] and the intellectual property matters were handled by this entity after that, freeing Goto, Takahashi and others at the University so that they could focus on technical inventions at hand.
US patent for Goto's parametron was granted (initially it was turned down with a comment, "it does not operate". [REF. Takahashi ibid, p.82]). A US company, NCR licensed the patent eventually but did not produce anything after about a year and its interest seemed to have disappeared. It was too late, in a sense, since the transistors became more robust and parametron's advantage was disappearing very fast.
Goto's mentor, Professor Takahashi wrote in 1971 that (in submitter's summary), "Fearing the
publication of the technology might invalidate the patent
applications, we took the hush hush approach, not publishing the new
technical results any longer. But with hindsight, it
may have been better to adopt a more open approach to sharing technology,
with its then current problems, with other parties early. Then the
technology might have been used wider (outside Japan, too, implicitly) and
problems may have gotten solved with more inputs from many parties.
I think this approach might have worked better for parametron." [REF 高橋]
This is a food for thought for today's inventor/researcher.
Geographic Obstacles
Research Infrastructure
Japan's research infrastructure was still recovering from the devastation of World War II. Establishing well-equipped laboratories and securing access to advanced research facilities were significant geographic challenges. Researchers had to overcome the limitations of the existing infrastructure and build new capabilities from the ground up.
Although Takahashi lab was hardly a rich laboratory back when parametron was invented, it enjoyed a better than average status because the University of Tokyo was the largest nation-run university of that time.
Access to Global Knowledge
Geographic isolation posed challenges in accessing the latest research and technological advancements from other parts of the world. Japanese researchers had to find ways to stay informed about global developments in electronic computing and incorporate this knowledge into their work. Building networks and establishing communication channels with international researchers were essential for overcoming this obstacle.
The following anecdote may seem outlandish to readers in the 21st century. However, Professor Takahashi (and people in other field such as physics, etc. of that time for that matter) mentioned that he learned of transistor and other technical discoveries in the world, via magazines made available at a library established by an occupying forces stationed in post-war Japan. University libraries were not functional at all back then.
There was a library in Hibiya, Tokyo, established by the general headquarters of the occupying force in post-war Japan and that was the place to go to read the latest American magazines including technology/science ones. CIE Information Center Library was it. So being in Tokyo, the capital of Tokyo was important. (There were similar CIE libraries in other parts of Japan, but Tokyo's Hibiya one seemed to have been largest. https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE%E5%9B%B3%E6%9B%B8%E9%A4%A8) Takahasi, Goto and others seemed to have learned of the EDSAC computer which they seemed to have studied extensively before the construction of PC-1 from learning about it through the reading at this library in Hibiya. It no longer exists.
Goto himself did not leave much about his study style in writing and the submitter could not learn much about WHERE he obtained knowledge. His research style, though, was to think hard about a topic himself very much and arrive at a solution or two, or even more before seeing other people's previous work.
Market Acceptance
Introducing a novel technology like the parametron to the global market requires overcoming geographic barriers. Domestic market in Japan accepted parametron very quickly and produced computers based on it. Convincing international markets of the parametron's advantages and securing adoption outside Japan involved addressing cultural and logistical challenges. Establishing distribution channels and support networks in different regions were crucial for the parametron's success.
That NCR licensed the Goto's parametron patent was a testament to the advantage of the parametron device at the time. Whether there was a strong support network to help NCR proceed is now a question of historical interest. There was no internet, no e-mail, no international fax.
These technical, political, and geographic obstacles were significant, but the dedication and ingenuity of Dr. Eiichi Goto and his team led to the successful development and implementation of the parametron. Their achievements laid the groundwork for future advancements in electronic computing in Japan and demonstrated the resilience and innovation of the scientific community in overcoming complex challenges.
What features set this work apart from similar achievements?
Features that set this work apart from similar achievements
Comparison with Other Methods
Comparing the parametron with vacuum tube, relay, and transistor types of the 1950s:
Pros
(a) The price is significantly lower compared to vacuum tubes.
(b) Compared to relays, it can operate at higher speeds.
(c) It is more stable than vacuum tubes and early transistors.
(d) Ferrite cores possess physical strength due to being made of ceramics.
(e) Errors due to radiation are less likely to occur.
Cons
(a) It consumes more power than transistors.
(b) While transistor calculators of the same era achieved an operating frequency of 1 megahertz, the parametron operated at about 10-30 [kHz], making it slow. When Goto later became friends with John McCarthy, he was asked, "Parametron is an interesting idea, but why did you make such a slow device?" . The speed difference between parametrons and junction transistors is notable; parametrons operated at a much lower frequency, leading to slower performance.
(c) Due to the significant heat generation (caused by loss due to the hysteretic characteristics of the magnetic material), increasing the operating frequency causes the ferrite core to overheat, altering its magnetic characteristics (burning) and hindering operation.
(d) It does not function properly when miniaturized, making it
challenging to integrate using microfabrication technology.
Logic Elements Similar to Parametrons
Capacitance Variable Type Parametron
Goto's parametron uses variable inductance (L). Around the same time as Goto's patent application (filed in April 1954), von Neumann proposed the idea of using parameter oscillations that change capacitance (C) instead of inductance. But his patent described the very meta-level of the IDEA of a parametron using microwave as the oscillation source and whether he tried to implement it and would have succeeded remains very mute.
There was a demonstration of C-type parametron by Hashizume et al in 2018. (https://siogadget.wordpress.com/2008/03/27/%E3%83%91%E3%83%A9%E3%83%A1%E3%83%88%E3%83%AD%E3%83%B3%E8%A8%88%E7%AE%97%E6%A9%9Fpc-1%E8%AA%95%E7%94%9F50%E5%91%A8%E5%B9%B4%E8%A8%98%E5%BF%B5%E3%81%AE%E4%BC%9A%E5%90%88%E3%81%A7%E3%81%AE%E5%B1%95/ in Japanese ).
Thin-Film Magnetic Material Parametron
Following the same principle, parametrons using thin-film magnetic materials were also studied, but they were not commercialized on a large scale.
Magnetic Flux Quantum Parametron
Magnetic flux quantum parametrons have also been studied. Proposed in 1986 by Goto et al. as a switching element capable of high-speed operation up to 16 GHz using the Josephson effect, these elements have principles similar to those of parametrons. Goto mentioned in an interview, "The fact that the principle is similar to parametron means that the same person can think about it." In addition to high-speed performance, these elements are characterized by power saving compared to other superconducting devices (such as Josephson elements), but large-scale integration has not been achieved. While they use quantum mechanics, they are not considered quantum computation in the conventional sense. [ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_flux_parametron]
Additionally, a reversible computational element using adiabatic quantum parametron (AQFP) approaching the limit based on Landauer's principle has been proposed. Goto invented the so-called QFP in 1984 as a low-power high-speed switch element. but the industry's mainstream investigated different superconducting logic circuit using different mechanisms since then.
However, lately, the energy-saving feature of QFP has revived its popularity, and AQFP is now a hot topic. The history of QFP and recent trends are explained in detail in [REF: Adiabatic Quantum-Flux-Parametron: A Tutorial Review, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/transele/E105.C/6/E105.C_2021SEP0003/_article ]
Appendix III discusses the parametron-like devices including QFP that were born after the original parametron was invented by Goto.
Why was the achievement successful and impactful?
The invention of the parametron in 1954 was successful and impactful
due to several key factors.
Firstly, the parametron, developed by Goto, was a revolutionary
advancement in electronic computing technology. Unlike traditional
vacuum tube-based computers, the parametron utilized parametric
oscillation, which significantly reduced power consumption and
reliability was improved by leaps and bound. This technological leap
addressed the major limitations of early computers, making them more
practical for widespread use.
Additionally, the parametron's design was versatile and adaptable,
allowing for various applications in different fields. It found use in
scientific research, industrial automation, and other field. The
flexibility and efficiency of the parametron paved the way for further
advancements in computing technology and set the stage for future
innovations.
Lastly, the parametron's success was not just limited to its
technical merits. It also had a lasting impact on the development of
computer science education in Japan. Many universities and research
institutions adopted the computers that used parametron for teaching
and research purposes, fostering a new generation of computer
scientists and engineers. (Some universities display the original
parametron computers thus used as memento of the birth of computer
education at their institution. See Appendix I.)
This educational impact contributed to the
rapid growth of Japan's technological workforce and the country's
continued leadership in the field.
The parametron's impact extended beyond just technological
innovation. It played a pivotal role in establishing Japan as a leader
in the field of computing during the post-war period. At a time when
Japan was rebuilding its industrial and technological capabilities,
the success of the parametron demonstrated the country's ability to
innovate and compete on the global stage. This accomplishment
instilled a sense of national pride and confidence in Japanese
scientists and engineers. This left an impact on the future computer industry.
In summary, the success and impact of the parametron in 1954 can be
attributed to its technological innovation, national significance,
versatile applications, and its role in advancing computer science
education in Japan.
Supporting texts and citations to establish the dates, location, and importance of the achievement: Minimum of five (5), but as many as needed to support the milestone, such as patents, contemporary newspaper articles, journal articles, or chapters in scholarly books. 'Scholarly' is defined as peer-reviewed, with references, and published. You must supply the texts or excerpts themselves, not just the references. At least one of the references must be from a scholarly book or journal article. All supporting materials must be in English, or accompanied by an English translation.
Bibliography
References
[1] Hidetoshi Takahashi, Eiichi Goto, Hiroshi Yamada: "On Mechanical and Electronic Calculation Methods", Technical Committee on Electronic Computers of the Institute of Electrical Communications, 1954. (In Japanese).
[Remarks] This Reference [1] is a Pair with the next Reference [2]. Reference [1] is the main text, and Reference [2] is the explanatory diagram.
This describes a "Quantum Voltage Storage Device".
The term "Quantum" is used with the meaning of "discretized" or "discrete", or "digital" in today's parlance. The authors' background in physics shows here.
The team at Takahashi laboratory including Eiichi Goto was very interested in building a computer of their own after their study of EDSAC and other computers abroad. This article and others showed their interest in novel, reliable and low cost logic elements which would let them build a computer at the University of Tokyo, and once the parametron was invented and its reliability and ease of maintenance far exceeded both the vacuum tubes and transistors, their interest turned into building a computer using parametrons.
Here is the translation of the first paragraph by the submitter. Please recall this was in 1954 and relay computers were still in vogue. They actually tried to use a mechanical switch from a university PBX for the mechanical scanning device.:
1. Quantum Voltage Storage Device". Since the electric charge stored in a storage device hardly changes in a short period of time, it is clear that information can be stored for a short period of time. However, if left unattended for an extended period of time, the electric charge leaks out and the information is lost. To prevent this, the charging voltage of the storage device should be quantized to a discrete value, and before the information is lost, the electric voltage of the storage device should be restored to the reference discrete value by an appropriate device. A machine that has the function of restoring the charging voltage of the storage device to the standard discrete value will be called a quantizer. It is not necessary to have one quantizer Q attached to each storage device. This is because a single quantizer can be used to quantize the voltages of many storage devices by sequentially switching between them if a suitable scanning device is available. If the time that a storage device can be left without losing information is T, and the required operating time per storage element of the quantizer and switching device S is t, then one quantizer Q can handle a maximum of N = T/t storage devices. In principle, a switching machine with such a function could be electronic or mechanical. From the above point of view, the Williams Memory Tube can be regarded as an electronic storage device. A normal Flip Flop is a storage device with a distributed capacity, but without S, and each storage device can be considered to have one quantizer Q attached to it. A Whirl Wind Tube can also be thought of as having an infinite number of Qs. However, these are all purely electronic, and there seems to have been no description yet of the second possibility above, i.e., a quantum voltage storage device that uses mechanically driven electrical contact switches. Therefore, we would like to examine this new storage system and its application to computers.
Media:Takahashi_19540129_1.pdf
[2] Hidetoshi Takahashi, Eiichi Goto, and Hiroshi Yamada: "On Mechanical and Electronic Calculation Methods (Explanatory Diagram)", The Technical Committee on Electronic Computer Research of the Society of Electrical Communicators, 1954. (In Japanese).
[Remarks] This Reference [2] is a Pair with the above Reference [1]. Reference [1] is the main text, and Reference [2] is the explanatory diagram.
Media:Takahashi_19540129_2.pdf
[3] Hidetoshi Takahashi, Eiichi Goto: "Counting Circuits of Parametrons", Technical Committee on Electronic Computers of the Institute of Telecommunications, September 1955. (In Japanese).
Abstract: Parametrons are typically designed as two-terminal elements and are primarily constructed using capacitors and transformers. These elements transition between different "energy states", with the internal state changing in response to an external driving signal (input signal). Specifically, the amplitude and phase of the input signal allow the parametron to hold two stable states (0 and 1) and perform logical operations by transitioning between them.
Counting Circuits Using Parametrons: When parametrons were used to create counting circuits, the design focused on the following key features:
(a) Counting circuits: Parametron-based counting circuits combine multiple parametron elements to track the increase or decrease of a number. These circuits repeat transitions between the states 0 and 1 as counting progresses, enabling integer counting.
(b) Digital logic circuits: Parametrons can serve as basic logic gates (e.g., AND, OR, NOT), which can be combined to create more complex computational circuits, such as adders and multipliers.
(c) Advantages of parametrons: Compared to conventional circuits that use vacuum tubes and transistors, parametron circuits offer enhanced stability and resistance to noise.
[4] Hidetoshi Takahashi, Eiichi Goto, Yukio Murakami, Hiroshi Yamada: "Parametron Computer PD-1516", Technical Committee on Electronic Computers of the Institute of Electrical Communications, April 1957. (In Japanese).
[Remarks] This was more like a calculator due to the initial limitation of small number of memory words. It is not a fully programmable stored-program computer of today.
Abstract: The PD-1516 is a parametron computer that was jointly developed by the University of Tokyo and Japan Electronics Instruments in October 1956. It had six words of internal storage initially. A parametron is a type of logic element that uses a ferrite core and is known for its low cost and stable operation. The PD-1516 was a calculator equipped with 16 registers, each capable of holding 15 decimal digits. The programming of this calculator was carried out using a symbolic programming language form. It contributed to the early days of computing industry in Japan.
[5] Hidetoshi Takahashi, Eiichi Goto, Eiichi Wada, Takashi Soma, Yoshihiro Ishibashi, Keisuke Nakagawa: "On the PC-1 Parametron Computer, (1.Structure of PC-1 and 2.Program of PC-1)", Technical Committee on Electronic Computers of the Institute of Electrical Communications, September 25, 1958. (In Japanese).
Abstract: (summarized from the original Japanese by the submitter.)
The PC-1 (Parametron Computer No. 1) is a universal scientific computer that uses parametron technology, developed by the Takahashi Laboratory at the Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo. Production began in 1957 and was completed in 1958. The computer contained 4,200 parametrons, while its input/output and storage devices were sourced from various companies. Notably, the reliability of the AC magnetic core storage device is exceptional, featuring an error-correction circuit that operates normally even if a single vacuum tube fails.
The PC-1 operates internally using the binary system and supports fixed-point arithmetic. It was the fastest computer in Japan at the time, operating 9 to 12 hours a day, with 5 hours dedicated to numerical calculations for various scientific departments, and the remaining time used for program development within the laboratory.
One of the key features of the PC-1 is its use of an AC magnetic core storage unit, ensuring stable operation. The calculation speed is enhanced by carry-lookahead circuit in the arithmetic circuit. Notably, innovations in numerical representation methods and parallel computing control have improved calculation speed by up to 2 to 3 times.
Plans for the PC-2 are already underway. Building on the experience gained with the PC-1, the PC-2 will feature enhanced memory capacity, high-speed I/O equipment, and floating-point computing capabilities. The design of the PC-1 includes a streamlined configuration of arithmetic circuits for addition, multiplication, and division, with particular attention to the addition circuit, high-speed multiplication processing, and division correction processing. The structure of the PC-1 was specifically devised to optimize efficiency and performance, and a similar approach will be applied to the design of the PC-2.
[6] Eiichi Goto: "Parametron Computer PC-1", Information Processing, Vol.1 6, No.1, pp. 39-43, 1975. (In Japanese).
[Remarks]
Reference [6] covers the same technical content as Reference [5]
concerning the PC-1. However, this reference [6] emphasizes the PC-1's
role as a milestone in the history of computing in Japan. This
distinction arises because reference [5], written by Takahashi in 1958
during PC-1's development, contrasts with the reference [6], written
by Goto more than 15 years later, after the PC-1 had been established
as a device of historical significance.
For example,
reference [6] provides a detailed account of the development history
of the PC-1, the various challenges encountered during its creation,
and its operational methods.
[7] Hidetosi Takahasi: "Some Important Computers of Japanese Design", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol.2, No.4, pp. 330-337. Oct.-Dec. 1980, doi: 10.1109/MAHC.1980.10043.
[Remarks] Note the phrase "we were on the verge of starvation in the ruin of our defeated country", and "We were starved for knowledge as well as for food". Such was the atmosphere of post-war Japan when parametron was invented.
Abstract: Rapid growth of the computer industry is one of the most striking events in the "miraculous" industrial explosion of postwar Japan. At the time the ENIAC was completed at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering, we were on the verge of starvation in the ruin of our defeated country. When we learned of the astonishing power of the "giant brain," it seemed indeed to be something belonging to another world. We were starved for knowledge as well as for food, and some of us who were optimistic enough were inspired by this fascinating new technology. We decided to make our own computers, and the study of "mechanical brains" got under way in Japan.
[8] Chigusa Kito; "PC-1 Parametron Computer, 50th anniversary", Events and Sightings, IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 30, No.3, pp. 74-77, July-September 2008.
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/247703
Media:Event and Sightings_2008.pdf
[9] E. Goto: "The Parametron, a Digital Computing Element Which Utilizes Parametric Oscillation", Proceedings of the IRE, Volume: 47, Issue: 8, pp. 1304 - 1316, August 1959, DOI: 10.1109/JRPROC.1959.287195
[Remarks] This paper won the prestigious IRE Memorial Prize Award in Memory of Browder J. Thompson in 1961.
Abstract: The following is a brief description of the basic principles and applications of the parametron, which is a digital computer element invented by the author in 1954. A parametron element is essentially a resonant circuit with a nonlinear reactive element which oscillates at one-half the driving frequency. The oscillation is used to represent a binary digit by the choice between two stationary phases π radians apart. The basic principle of logical circuits using the parametron is explained, and research on and applications of parametrons in Japan are described.
[10] E. Goto; K. Murata; K. Nakazawa; K. Nakagawa; T. Moto-Oka; Y. Matsuoka; "Esaki Diode High-Speed Logical Circuits",
IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers, Volume: EC-9, Issue: 1, pp. 25 - 29, March 1960
DOI: 10.1109/TEC.1960.5221600
Abstract: Logical circuits using Esaki diodes, and which are based on a principle similar to parametron (subharmonic oscillator element) circuits, are described. Two diodes are used in series to form a basic element called a twin, and a binary digit is represented by the polarity of the potential induced at the middle point of the twin, which is controlled by the majority of input signals applied to the middle point. Unilateral transmission of information in circuits consisting of cascaded twins is achieved by dividing the twins into three groups and by energizing each group one after another in a cyclic manner. Experimental results with the clock frequency as high as 30 mc are reported. Also, a delay-line dynamic memory and a nondestructive memory in matrix form are discussed.
Submitter's note: "30 mc" means "30 MHz" in today's parlance, that is, "c" stands for "cycle" Media: Goto_EsakiDiode.pdf
[11] Eiiti Wada: "The Initial Input Routine of the Parametron Computer PC-1", pp. 435-452 in Raúl Rojas, Ulf Hashagen ed: "The First Computers: History and Architectures", MIT Press, 2002.
Abstract: Forty years ago, the PC-1, parametron computer 1, was born at Professor Hidetosi Takahasi's Laboratory. The logical elements of the PC-1 were parametrons, which supported majority logic. The memory system operated in a two frequency read/write scheme. The word selection mechanism applied error correcting code to decrease the number of elements. Most of the hardware technologies were created by Eiichi Goto.
We studied the EDSAC computer precisely, however we developed our own architecture and programming system based upon our own philosophy. The machine instruction set was chosen to ease programming. The normal teletype on the market was employed, leaving the burden of code conversion tasks to software, which seemed to us to have had almost infinite abilities.
However, the real memory capacity was indeed very small, which forced us to invent a clever way to implement things. In this paper, after introducing the functions of the initial input routine R0, examples of (i) code conversion table parasitic on the program body and (ii) the magic number method to control the number of multiplications, both used in the initial input routine, are described. The PC-1 is one of the first computers which implemented interruption. That is, the peripheral devices would interrupt the running program by saving the address of the next instruction to be executed and jumping to a fixed location in the memory. As a simple experiment of multiple programming, cooperation of the binary to decimal conversion program and the printer control program by means of the circular buffer was performed.
At the end of this paper, the program lists of the selected routines are appended.
[12] M. V. Wilkes, D. J. Wheeler and S. Gill: The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer. Addison-Wesley Press, Inc. 1951.
[13] Hidetosi Takahasi, "電子計算機の誕生" (Birth of an Electronic Computer in Japanese), Chuo-Koron Sha, 1971.
[14] Committee for the 50th Anniversary of PC-1, "パラメトロン計算機 PC-1 1958-2008" (Parametron Computer PC-1 1958-2008 in Japanese), https://www.iijlab.net/~ew/pc1/pc150th.pdf),
Patents
[P1] EIICHI GOTO: "RESONATOR CIRCUITS", US Patent 2,948,818, Filing: May 16, 1955. Patented: Aug. 9, 1960.
[P2] EIICHI GOTO: "DEVICE COMPRISING PARAMETRICALLY EXCITED RESONATORS", US Patent 2.948,819, Filing: Feb. 27, 1956. Patented: Aug. 9, 1960.
Awards
[A1] IRE Memorial Prize Award in Memory of Browder J. Thompson, in 1961.
Citation: For his paper entitled “The Parametron, a Digital Computing Element which Utilizes Parametric Oscillation,” which appeared in August, 1959, issue of Proceedings of the IRE. (reference [9] of this proposal document.)
The IEEE Browder J. Thompson Memorial Prize Paper Award was established in 1945 and is presented for the most outstanding paper in any IEEE publication issued between 1 January and 31 December of the preceding year by an author or joint authors under thirty years of age at the time the original manuscript was submitted. The award has been replaced by Leon K. Kirchmayer Prize Paper Award since 1997. (https://ethw.org/IEEE_Browder_J._Thompson_Memorial_Prize_Paper_Award)
Appendix I: Detailed list of commercial Parametron computers
Japan Electronics Instruments
PD-1516 (1956): This was more like a calculator because it had
initially only 6 words of memory. Development division was later moved to Fujitsu.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0051.html
The University of Tokyo (Takahashi Laboratory)
PC-1/4 (1957): A preliminary experimental model of the PC-1, about the size of a notebook. It can perform arithmetic on binary numbers each with 9 bits. The input device has only 7 toggle switches. PC-1 was going to use a binary number of 36-bit. This machine used 9-bit number, thus 1/4.
PC-1 (1958): A full 36-bit stored-program machine with a 2 m wide and 1.5 m high chassis. (Japan Electronics Instruments, Fujitsu [6]). A female employee responsible for relay wiring produced 4,300 parametrons. The excitation frequency is 2 MHz, and the operating frequency is 15 kilohertz. The storage device has 256 bytes. The instruction set includes simple addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It features a "high-speed digit raising circuit" for fast addition, multiplication, and division, based on Goto's own idea, and "proactive control" for performing multiple instructions simultaneously. The input and output use 6-hole perforated tape. The first program is an "erased blank" (literal translation: blank erasure) that skips only the parts where no data is written ("00" in hexadecimal). It is reported that many people from outside came to use it. It has been dismantled and no longer exists.
PC-2 (1960): Funded by the Ministry of Education, it was jointly developed with Fujitsu. It is an enhanced version of the PC-1 for scientific calculations, using 13,000 parametrons. The excitation frequency is 6 MHz, and the operating frequency is 60 KHz. The word length is 48 bits. It includes functions such as floating-point arithmetic, data search, and quaternary multiplication. It was the fastest parametron computer and outperformed the transistor-based ETL Mark IV A (although junction transistors were still at a speed disadvantage at the time) [7]. It took 9 seconds for a 1000-digit calculation of the natural logarithm. It was commercialized as FACOM 202.
Japan Telegraph and Telephone Corporation (Telecommunications Research Institute)
MUSASINO-1 (1957): Initially had 32 words using magnetic core
memory. The instruction set was based on ILLIAC 1.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0013.html
MUSASINO-1B (1960): Jointly developed with Fujitsu. Commercialized as the FACOM 201.
CAMA (1963): For call billing only, not programmable.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0032.html
A model is displayed at the Central Research Laboratory of Hitachi
Corporation as of Feb 2025.
Hitachi
HIPAC MK-1 (December 1957): The company's first computer.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0015.html
HIPAC 101 (1960): Commercialized.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0019.html
HIPAC 103 (August 1961): Commercialized. For scientific and technical calculations.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0041.html
NEC
NEAC-1101 (1958): The company's first computer.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0017.html
NEAC-1102 (1958): Jointly developed with Tohoku University and delivered to the Electrocommunications Research Institute, Tohoku University. Also known as SENAC.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0020.html
NEAC-1103 (1960): Delivered to the National Defense Agency Technical Research Laboratory.
NEAC-1201 (1961): Commercialized as an office computer. Its successors
were NEAC-1202 and NEAC-1210.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/computer/dawn/0040.html (in Japanese)
NEAC-1210 (1964)
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/computer/dawn/0060.html (in Japanese)
Oki Electric
OPC-1 (1959):
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0023.html
INS-1 (circa 1962): Installed at Japan Nuclear Research Institute
(which was established in July 1955).
The sketchy description of manufacturing and installation of this
computer is only found in the following Japanese page.
https://www.hpcwire.jp/archives/40591 (in Japanese)
Fujitsu
FACOM 200 (1958): A prototype that of computers that followed.
https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/dawn/0062.html
FACOM 212 (1959): Commercialized as an office computer.
FACOM 201 (1960): Commercialization of MUSASINO-1B.
A machine is on permanent display in 2018 at Tokyo University of Science.
https://www.tus.ac.jp/info/setubi/naruhodo/main/calculators.html
(in Japanese)
Tokyo University of Science even organized an event on "Parametron
computers and relay computers." in 2018.
https://www.tus.ac.jp/info/setubi/museum/event_data/2018parametron/2018parametron.html
(In Japanese)
[Remarks] This shows the impact parametron had on the Japanese
computer industry and education in the late 1950 and the 1960s.
FACOM 202 (1960): Commercialization of the PC-2. For scientific and technical calculations. At the time of completion, it became the fastest computer in Japan.
Mitsubishi Electric
MELCOM 3409 (1960): Mitsubishi immediately switched to using transistor after this machine, and not much material is available online.
Koden Electronics Co., Ltd.
KODIC-401 (1960): Experimental prototype.
KODIC-402 (1961): General-purpose. Commercialized with an operating
frequency of 2 MHz, decimal 16-digit fixed-point stored programming,
and a magnetic drum storage device with 4000 words. A total of three
systems were delivered for in-house use, including one to the Faculty
of Engineering at Japan University and another to the Department of Industrial
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka Electro-Communication
University (OTSUDAC-1, delivered in March 1963, currently on display
and preserved).
OTSUDAC-1 was on display at the university in 2014. (https://www.hpcwire.jp/archives/41516)
Th following is a press release regarding the chair of Koden Electgronics, Mr. Itoh,
visiting the display on July 14, 2014.
https://www.osakac.ac.jp/news/2014/327
[Remarks] The following excerpt showed the impact of parametron-based computer on education at universities in Japan circa 1960.
An excerpt from the release:
... This electronic computer was produced by Koden Co., Ltd. around 1963, and is said to be very valuable as an early computer using a parametron element at a time when computers were not yet widespread. The University was the first university to introduce this computer for education and research, and has preserved it on the second floor of Building M at the Neyagawa Campus since 1976 to commemorate the achievements of that time. ...
Appendix II: subroutines and the type of calculations done on PC-1
These are taken from references [6], [14].
Takahashi/Goto Lab:
Interrupt handling multitasking
Fast Fourier Transform (very similar to the FFT known later)
Elliptic function table based on summation rule
Exact calculation of integer arithmetic of arbitrary length using modular arithmetic
Numerical simulation of Goto pair
Eigenvalue solver for symmetric and asymmetric matrices
(Solving 10x10 matrix problem in 512 words PC-1!)
Partial equation solver
Nuclear (Magnetic) Moments of atoms Calculation in two coulomb center potential field Dispersion Relations in Nucleon scattering
Crystal structure analysis
Electron beam diffraction analysis of gas
Molecular vibration analysis for spectroscopy
Among the researchers who did the molecular vibration analysis
was Mitsuo Tasumi (1937 – 2021).
He received the prestigious Optics Society of America's Ellis
R. Lippincott Award in 1999“for outstanding contributions to
vibrational spectroscopy in studying the structures and
dynamics of synthetic polymers, proteins, photosynthetic
systems, and a number of related small molecules.”
https://www.optica.org/History/Biographies/bios/Mitsuo_Tasumi
His thesis calculations were done on PC-1 and PC-2.
He left his memoir regarding the 50th anniversary of PC-1 in
2008, and stated that PC-1 has determined his career.
http://sapiarc.web.fc2.com/Essay/2008/2008-03.pdf (in Japanese)
There were many more, but Goto stated in [6] (written in 1975) that many researchers who did the calculation on PC-1 were scattered around the world and he could not obtain much information already in 1975. He specifically mentioned detailed information on ordinary differential equation solver, and solver for partial differential equation for magnet design were missing.
Appendix III Parametrons in Disguise
Original parametron invented in 1954 used ferrite core. The idea of parametron, i.e., parametric oscillation, recurred later from time to time in different forms in designing digital circuits and certain applications.
Goto Pair
When Tunnel diode (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_diodewas) was invented, Goto created a new device consisting of two tunnel diodes called Goto pair. (See the reference [10], E. Goto; K. Murata; K. Nakazawa; K. Nakagawa; T. Moto-Oka; Y. Matsuoka; "Esaki Diode High-Speed Logical Circuits")
This is actually a parametric device of a sort. The logic device achieved 30 MHz operation which was quite an impressive achievement back in 1960.
Quantum flux parametron
Much later, Goto realized a parametric oscillation can be observed in a super-cooled Josephson-junction device, and devised a logic device called quantum flux parametron in 1986, and carried out research on it. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_flux_parametron)
This was explained in the "Features that set this apart from other similar achievements" section, and the version of QFP called Adiabetic Quantum Flux Parametron, with its energy-saving feature, seems to attract attention again in energy-aware computing industry of today. [REF: Adiabatic Quantum-Flux-Parametron: A Tutorial Review, https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/transele/E105.C/6/E105.C_2021SEP0003/_article ]
These and other contributions by Eiichi Goto to the development of computer technology are chronicled succinctly in a web page of Japan Information Processing Society after he passed away in 2005. Interested readers are referred to the following URL.: https://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/pioneer/gotou.html
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