Milestone-Proposal:Faraday’s Discovery of Induction
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Docket #:2025-21
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To the proposer’s knowledge, is this achievement subject to litigation? No
Is the achievement you are proposing more than 25 years old? Yes
Is the achievement you are proposing within IEEE’s designated fields as defined by IEEE Bylaw I-104.11, namely: Engineering, Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Physical Sciences, Biological and Medical Sciences, Mathematics, Technical Communications, Education, Management, and Law and Policy. Yes
Did the achievement provide a meaningful benefit for humanity? Yes
Was it of at least regional importance? Yes
Has an IEEE Organizational Unit agreed to pay for the milestone plaque(s)? Yes
Has the IEEE Section(s) in which the plaque(s) will be located agreed to arrange the dedication ceremony? Yes
Has the IEEE Section in which the milestone is located agreed to take responsibility for the plaque after it is dedicated? Yes
Has the owner of the site agreed to have it designated as an IEEE Milestone? Yes
Year or range of years in which the achievement occurred:
1821 - 1832
Title of the proposed milestone:
Faraday’s Discovery of Induction 1831
Plaque citation summarizing the achievement and its significance; if personal name(s) are included, such name(s) must follow the achievement itself in the citation wording: Text absolutely limited by plaque dimensions to 70 words; 60 is preferable for aesthetic reasons.
Michael Faraday discovered magnetic induction although others searched for its effects before and at the same time. Commencing experiments on the 31st of August 1831, Faraday observed oscillations of a compass needle when a current was turned on in a nearby circuit. Later, he showed that an electric current is induced in a helical wire coil by a moving magnet. Faraday’s discovery of induction was crucial in developing a dynamical model of the electromagnetic field.
200-250 word abstract describing the significance of the technical achievement being proposed, the person(s) involved, historical context, humanitarian and social impact, as well as any possible controversies the advocate might need to review.
IEEE technical societies and technical councils within whose fields of interest the Milestone proposal resides.
IEEE Antennas & Propagation Society IEEE Microwave Theory & Technology Society
In what IEEE section(s) does it reside?
UK and Ireland Section
IEEE Organizational Unit(s) which have agreed to sponsor the Milestone:
IEEE Organizational Unit(s) paying for milestone plaque(s):
Unit: IEEE Antennas & Propagation Society
Senior Officer Name: Christophe Fumeaux
Unit: IEEE Microwave Theory & Technology Society
Senior Officer Name: Goutam Chattopadhyay
IEEE Organizational Unit(s) arranging the dedication ceremony:
Unit: IEEE Antennas & Propagation Society
Senior Officer Name: Trevor S. Bird
Unit: IEEE UK and Ireland Section
Senior Officer Name: Paul Cunningham
Unit: IEEE Microwave Theory & Technology Society
Senior Officer Name: Goutam Chattopadhyay
IEEE section(s) monitoring the plaque(s):
IEEE Section: IEEE UK and Ireland Section
IEEE Section Chair name: Paul Cunningham
Milestone proposer(s):
Proposer name: Trevor S. Bird
Proposer email: Proposer's email masked to public
Please note: your email address and contact information will be masked on the website for privacy reasons. Only IEEE History Center Staff will be able to view the email address.
Street address(es) and GPS coordinates in decimal form of the intended milestone plaque site(s):
The Royal Institution, 21 Albemarle Street, London W1S 4BS UK. Coordinates 51.50583 El; -0.13222 Az
Describe briefly the intended site(s) of the milestone plaque(s). The intended site(s) must have a direct connection with the achievement (e.g. where developed, invented, tested, demonstrated, installed, or operated, etc.). A museum where a device or example of the technology is displayed, or the university where the inventor studied, are not, in themselves, sufficient connection for a milestone plaque.
Please give the details of the mounting, i.e. on the outside of the building, in the ground floor entrance hall, on a plinth on the grounds, etc. If visitors to the plaque site will need to go through security, or make an appointment, please give the contact information visitors will need. The plaque is intended to be placed in the Royal Institution near Faraday’s laboratory where the work occurred.
Are the original buildings extant?
Yes, there is a museum on Faraday’s work and his laboratory, which can be visited. Admittance is free. (see picture Faraday1.jpg)
Details of the plaque mounting:
The plaque is intended to be placed in the Royal Institution, on the wall near Faraday’s laboratory.
How is the site protected/secured, and in what ways is it accessible to the public?
A caretaker is present at the site.
Who is the present owner of the site(s)?
The Royal Institution
What is the historical significance of the work (its technological, scientific, or social importance)? If personal names are included in citation, include detailed support at the end of this section preceded by "Justification for Inclusion of Name(s)". (see section 6 of Milestone Guidelines)
The nomination is for Faraday’s discovery of induction [1] in 1831. Before that in 1820 Fresnel speculated on finding the converse of Oested’s experiment [2]. It was also after Fresnel’s friend Ampere had produced his first results of a magnetic field being associated with a constant current. Fresnel attempted to verify his speculation. Ampere reported too that he had seen currents, but this was retracted soon after. Thus commenced a series of false alarms and misunderstandings from attempts to identify an induced current before Faraday’s successful experiments in 1831 [1], [3]-[4]. At about the same time as Ampere’s first experiment, Sir Humphry Davey became interested in a possible follow-up to Oersted’s experiment that proposed the new effect could be used to produce rotary motion in a manner. This was before Faradays’ discovery of how this could actually be achieved in 1821. As Davey’s assistant, Faraday was most likely involved in these experiments at the Royal Institution at the time. Davey made some unsuccessful attempts towards achieving it, and this was communicated to Ampere [3]. Ampere decided to repeat his earlier unsuccessful experiment with better equipment. He used a copper ring that was suspended by a wire that continued inside it. This formed a secondary circuit that was inside and parallel with a flat coil, which functioned as a primary circuit. A powerful horseshoe magnet was placed perpendicular to the rings following Ampere’s belief that currents were solely responsible for magnetism and they should encircle the magnetic axis within planes perpendicular to this axis. Ampere expected that an induced current would flow around the inner ring and be detected by the action of the magnet on it. Despite his expectation he saw no movement of the ring. In 1822 he repeated the experiment this time with the assistance of Auguste de la Rive, a correspondent of Michael Faraday since they had met in Geneva in 1814. The result of attempting to detect an electric current in the copper strip while exposing it to the adjoining coil proved conclusively to Ampere that his theories were incorrect and as a result, he lost interest in any further follow up. D.F. Arago, whilst working with von Humboldt in 1822 had observed that if the disk rotated in one direction, the needle was deflected in that direction to a particular angle depending on the speed of the wheel, and if the wheel reversed the needle followed similarly. Arago reported the results at a meeting of the Academy on the 24th of November 1824. This became known as the Arago disk experiment. Ultimately, the effect was interpreted by Michael Faraday in October 1831 [4]. In September 1821 Faraday discovered how to create mechanical motion with electromagnetics and this result was published by the Royal Society. There was controversy over the paper due to Humphrey Davey accusing him of plagiarising H. Wollaston’s suggested approach. In the event, Wollaston agreed with Faraday that their approaches were sufficiently different, and he did not expect to be referenced in the paper [1]. Faraday sent a copy of this paper to Ampere, and after a regrettable delay due to translation, Faraday was in direct contact with Ampere from 1823. Ampere and Faraday were in correspondence for the rest of the former’s life. Faraday had limited mathematical knowledge and Ampere often provided good advice on what experiments to try which Faraday often ignored. Ampere even admonished him on wasting his time on known matters and not following up on improving his experiments as well as his mathematical knowledge.
(see picture Faraday2.jpg)
Figure 2: Faraday’s handwritten notes in his workbook on the 31st of August 1831 of his successful induction experiment [4]. The note says ‘…insulate from the other. Will call this side of the ring A on the other side but separated by an interval was wound wire in two pieces together amounting to about 60 feet in length the direction being as with the former coils, this side call B. Charged a battery of 10 pair plates 4 inches square. Made the coil on B side one coil and connected its extremities by a copper wire passing to a distance ^ and just over a magnetic needle ( 3 feet from wire ring). Then connected the ends of one of the pieces on A side with battery. Immediately a sensible effect on needle. It oscillated and settled at last in original position. On breaking connection of A side with battery again a disturbance of the needle…’.
Faraday continued making electrical experiments from 1825 to 1828 with little further progress on achieving induction [3]. With admirable dogged persistence [1], he continued experimenting and finally he went back to an earlier suggestion of Ampere’s of using a soft iron ring to concentrate the magnetic lines and he decided to wrap a wire helix of many turns around it. He had the iron ring fabricated and then began a new series of experiments commencing on the 31st of August 1831 [4]. One circuit on the iron ring was completed by connecting the ends over a magnetic needle placed far away coil so as not to be affected by the magnetic field from the ring (see Fig. 3). The primary circuit was completed by connection to a battery. As soon as the battery was turned on, oscillations of the compass needle could be seen. By breaking the primary circuit, the needle moved in the opposite direction. Faraday noted in his diary as shown in Fig. 2 that the induction effect was transitory.
He worked continuously on induction experiments through September to early November. His understanding of induction grew allowing him to interpret Arago’s disk experiment on the 28th of October. Shortly after this he wrote up the work that included many other experiments. Then on the 24th of November 1831 the formal announcement of his discoveries was disclosed when he read an account of them to the Royal Society. A paper describing the results was published early in 1832 and more completely later in December [5].
Building on his initial observation of induction with other experiments, Faraday showed that changes in the magnetic field around the first coil are responsible for inducing the current in the second coil and hence mutual induction. Importantly, he showed when a magnet is moved near or through a wire coil connected to a galvanometer, the magnetic field lines passing through the coil change, inducing an EMF causing a current in the wire helix.
(see picture Faraday3.jpg) Figure 3: A present-day display at the Royal Institution of Faraday’s induction experiment.
Incomplete reports of Faraday’s first discovery were disclosed through the press and many researchers became aware of this initially by these means, which raised some questions and added confusion. As well, Faraday misinterpreted the direction of the induced current, and this caused some controversy, and this required a minor a correction to the original paper. In December Faraday sent a letter to a contact in Paris telling of his recent discoveries [5]. This letter was given to the secretary of the Academy of Sciences at the time, Arago, who read it at its 26th December meeting. A garbled report appeared in the local press, which said that French scientists had made the discovery. The report reached Italian scientists Leopoldo Noboli and Vincenzio Antinori who immediately repeated the experiments and confirmed Faraday’s results. Their results and conclusions were included in a paper dated 31st January 1832. The paper was published in an issue of Antologia dated November 1831. The erroneous reports were corrected in a London paper, and there the matter lay for three months. They erupted once again when the Antologia issue appeared which date seemed to imply the two Italian scientists had been first in discovering induction [5]. Faraday added a footnote on this in reference [5]. One person who was unaware of Faraday’s results at the time was Joseph Henry in Albany, New York. Henry had noticed the transient nature of the induced current later in May 1832 before he had heard of Faraday’s results. He did some further measurements and confirmed Faraday’s results. In addition, he noticed the production of sparks when a long helical conductor was disconnected from a current source [6]. Faraday later had extended his knowledge of self-induction which was reported by Henry in late 1832. Faraday had cordial relations with Henry. They communicated directly with each other after 1830, and they remained connected until Faraday’s passing in 1867 (for example [7]). Henry had visited Faraday in 1830 on a trip that was funded by his institution in Princeton NJ, where he witnessed some of Faraday’s recent work. James Clerk Maxwell commenced corresponding with Faraday on electromagnetism from the mid-1850s. Maxwell, then a young man, was deeply impressed by Faraday's concept of "lines of force" and sought to put Faraday's ideas into mathematics. Faraday, who was self-taught, was a strong believer in experimentation and did not understand mathematics. Maxwell set about putting Faraday discoveries into mathematical form, publishing his first paper on the subject in 1856: "On Faraday's Lines of Force" [8]. He also attended some of Faraday’s lectures at the Royal Institution. Faraday died on 25th August 1867. In an irony of timing, Maxwell first expressed the Maxwell-Faraday equation in its initial form in 1865 in a paper "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" [9]. This paper was presented to the Royal Society in December 1864. By that time Faraday had almost retired, and his mind was crumbling fast. The right-hand screw rule often associated with Faraday and Maxwell used to determine the direction of the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire was first developed by Ampere in 1820.
[1] T. S. Bird, ‘Michael Faraday and the Inductionists [Historically Speaking]’, in IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 71-74, April 2024, doi: 10.1109/MAP.2024.3362137 [2] A.-J. Fermat, ‘Note sur des Essais ayant pour but de décomposer l’eau avec un aimant’, Annales de Cherie et la Physique’, Vol. 15, 1820, pp. 219-223. [3] J. Hamilton, ‘A life of discovery’, Random House, New York, 2002. [4] M. Faraday, ‘Faraday’s diary: being the various philosophical experimental investigation made by Michael Faraday during the years 1820-1862’, Vol. 1: Sept. 1820- Jun 11, 1832, G. Bell and Sons, Ltd, Cambridge, 1832. Reprinted Forgotten Books, London, 2018. [5] M. Faraday, , ‘Experimental researches in electricity’, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. of London, Volume 122, Issue 122, Dec. 1832, pp. 125-162. [6] J. Henry, ‘On the production of currents and sparks of electricity from magnetism’, American J. Sci. Arts, Vol. 22, Issue 2, 1832, pp. 403-408. [7] M. Faraday, ‘Faraday to Joseph Henry 28 April and 2 May 1851’, “Faraday2416,” in Ɛpsilon: The Michael Faraday Collection accessed 15 Oct. 2023. [8] J.C. Maxwell, ‘On Faraday's lines of force’, Cambridge Phil. Trans., Vol. X. Pt 1, Feb. 11, 1856, pp. 27-83. [9] J.C. Maxwell, ‘A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Vol. 155, Jan. 1 1865, pp. 459-512.
What obstacles (technical, political, geographic) needed to be overcome?
- Its importance to the evolution of electrical & computer engineering and science
The discovery and interpretation of induction by Faraday completed one of the missing links in electromagnetism, and its discovery was one of the greatest. It provided the clues taken up by James Clerk Maxwell in bringing together the elements of electromagnetism. This discovery by Faraday is a familiar story. When a missing link in a theory is pursued by several brilliant people several of them will produce the answer almost simultaneously as it occurred with Joseph Henry and Leopoldo Noboli.
- It’s importance to regional/national/international development
Faraday’s discovery of the induction law was a tour de force. His experiments and interpretations of them laid the foundation for base for James Clerk Maxwell when developing his laws of electromagnetics.
- Ways the achievement was a significant advance rather than incremental.
Faraday’s law of induction is a fundamental law of physics
What features set this work apart from similar achievements?
- The discovery of a fundamental physical law. For the IEEE, there is no Milestone covering the basic law of induction although the logo of IEEE shows the right-hand screw rule.
Why was the achievement successful and impactful?
araday’s discovery of the induction law was a tour de force. His experiments and interpretations of them laid the foundation for base for James Clerk Maxwell when developing his laws of electromagnetics.
Supporting texts and citations to establish the dates, location, and importance of the achievement: Minimum of five (5), but as many as needed to support the milestone, such as patents, contemporary newspaper articles, journal articles, or chapters in scholarly books. 'Scholarly' is defined as peer-reviewed, with references, and published. You must supply the texts or excerpts themselves, not just the references. At least one of the references must be from a scholarly book or journal article. All supporting materials must be in English, or accompanied by an English translation.
Supporting materials (supported formats: GIF, JPEG, PNG, PDF, DOC): All supporting materials must be in English, or if not in English, accompanied by an English translation. You must supply the texts or excerpts themselves, not just the references. For documents that are copyright-encumbered, or which you do not have rights to post, email the documents themselves to ieee-history@ieee.org. Please see the Milestone Program Guidelines for more information.
Please email a jpeg or PDF a letter in English, or with English translation, from the site owner(s) giving permission to place IEEE milestone plaque on the property, and a letter (or forwarded email) from the appropriate Section Chair supporting the Milestone application to ieee-history@ieee.org with the subject line "Attention: Milestone Administrator." Note that there are multiple texts of the letter depending on whether an IEEE organizational unit other than the section will be paying for the plaque(s).
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