Milestone-Proposal:Charge Coupled Display Device

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Docket #:2024-12

This proposal has been submitted for review.

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To the proposer’s knowledge, is this achievement subject to litigation? No

Is the achievement you are proposing more than 25 years old? Yes

Is the achievement you are proposing within IEEE’s designated fields as defined by IEEE Bylaw I-104.11, namely: Engineering, Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Physical Sciences, Biological and Medical Sciences, Mathematics, Technical Communications, Education, Management, and Law and Policy. Yes

Did the achievement provide a meaningful benefit for humanity? Yes

Was it of at least regional importance? Yes

Has an IEEE Organizational Unit agreed to pay for the milestone plaque(s)? Yes

Has the IEEE Section(s) in which the plaque(s) will be located agreed to arrange the dedication ceremony? Yes

Has the IEEE Section in which the milestone is located agreed to take responsibility for the plaque after it is dedicated? Yes

Has the owner of the site agreed to have it designated as an IEEE Milestone? Yes

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Year or range of years in which the achievement occurred:

1969

Title of the proposed milestone:

Charge-Coupled Device, 1969

Plaque citation summarizing the achievement and its significance; if personal name(s) are included, such name(s) must follow the achievement itself in the citation wording: Text absolutely limited by plaque dimensions to 70 words; 60 is preferable for aesthetic reasons.

The charge-coupled device (CCD), originally conceived for digital memory applications, was later shown to offer a compact, sensitive, and efficient way to convert light into digital signals by storing light-generated charges in a series of tiny capacitors. Invented and developed by Bell Labs scientists Willard Boyle, George Smith, and Michael Tompsett, CCDs found wide use in astronomical instruments, medical imaging, and consumer electronics.

200-250 word abstract describing the significance of the technical achievement being proposed, the person(s) involved, historical context, humanitarian and social impact, as well as any possible controversies the advocate might need to review.

The invention of the Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) in the late 1960s by Willard Boyle and George Smith at Bell Labs marked a revolutionary leap in imaging technology. This breakthrough, initially conceived for digital memory applications, transformed the way we capture and process light, impacting fields ranging from astronomy to medicine. Prior to CCDs, capturing images relied on high-voltage, fragile vacuum tubes or bulky and slow photographic film. CCDs, however, offered a compact, sensitive, and highly efficient way to convert light into digital signals. They operate by storing light-generated charges in a series of tiny capacitors, which are then read out electronically. This digital nature enabled unprecedented control over image manipulation, storage, and transmission. The historical significance of CCDs is multifaceted. In astronomy, they revolutionized observation, allowing astronomers to capture faint objects and distant galaxies with unparalleled clarity. In medicine, CCDs enabled the development of digital X-ray imaging, endoscopy, and digital microscopy, leading to improved diagnostics and treatment. The widespread adoption of CCDs in consumer cameras democratized photography, making high-quality imaging accessible to everyone. The CCD's impact extends beyond imaging. Its principles are applied in various fields, including spectroscopy, medical imaging, and even scientific research. The invention of the CCD stands as a testament to the power of fundamental scientific discoveries to transform our world, shaping the way we perceive and interact with the universe around us.

IEEE technical societies and technical councils within whose fields of interest the Milestone proposal resides.

Solid-State Circuits, PHotonics

In what IEEE section(s) does it reside?

North Jersey

IEEE Organizational Unit(s) which have agreed to sponsor the Milestone:

IEEE Organizational Unit(s) paying for milestone plaque(s):

Unit: North Jersey Section
Senior Officer Name: Emad Farag

IEEE Organizational Unit(s) arranging the dedication ceremony:

Unit: North Jersey Section
Senior Officer Name: Emad Farag

IEEE section(s) monitoring the plaque(s):

IEEE Section: North Jersey
IEEE Section Chair name: Emad Farag

Milestone proposer(s):

Proposer name: Theodore Sizer
Proposer email: Proposer's email masked to public

Please note: your email address and contact information will be masked on the website for privacy reasons. Only IEEE History Center Staff will be able to view the email address.

Street address(es) and GPS coordinates in decimal form of the intended milestone plaque site(s):

600 Mountain Avenue, Murray Hill, NJ 07974 40.684031, -74.401783

Describe briefly the intended site(s) of the milestone plaque(s). The intended site(s) must have a direct connection with the achievement (e.g. where developed, invented, tested, demonstrated, installed, or operated, etc.). A museum where a device or example of the technology is displayed, or the university where the inventor studied, are not, in themselves, sufficient connection for a milestone plaque.

Please give the address(es) of the plaque site(s) (GPS coordinates if you have them). Also please give the details of the mounting, i.e. on the outside of the building, in the ground floor entrance hall, on a plinth on the grounds, etc. If visitors to the plaque site will need to go through security, or make an appointment, please give the contact information visitors will need. Intention is to have the plaque just outside the main entrance to the Nokia Bell Labs facility in Murray Hill, NJ. Is both a corporate building and an Historic Site as other historical markers from IEEE are already on site both inside and outside the building.

Are the original buildings extant?

Yes

Details of the plaque mounting:

Outside the building on a rock or other permanent structure.

How is the site protected/secured, and in what ways is it accessible to the public?

The plaque will be prior to entering the building and thus there is no need to pass through security.

Who is the present owner of the site(s)?

Nokia America

What is the historical significance of the work (its technological, scientific, or social importance)? If personal names are included in citation, include detailed support at the end of this section preceded by "Justification for Inclusion of Name(s)". (see section 6 of Milestone Guidelines)

Justification for Inclusion of Names(s) In 2009, Willard Boyle and George E. Smith were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit – the CCD sensor". Boyle and Smith worked together on the initial design and fabrication of the CCD at AT&T Bell Labs in Murray Hill, NJ and are the only authors of the key patents surrounding this invention. Michael Tompsett, a colleague of Boyle and Smith at Bell Labs, realized the use of the CCD as a useful imaging device with wide application.

Charge-coupled device

A charge-coupled device (CCD) is an integrated circuit containing a silicon semiconductor device and an array of linked, or coupled, capacitors. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric charge to a neighboring capacitor. CCDs are used in digital cameras, optical scanners and video cameras as image sensors. They have also found uses in astronomy and spectroscopy.

Prior to CCD, there were a number of analog image sensors such as the Vidicon TV camera tube. Initially, these were better quality than the original CCD. However, they were expensive, fragile, and required a high voltage. Key benefits of the CCD included power efficiency, ruggedness, reliability, and the ability to do long exposures well. As the CCD is an analog device, it requires an external A/D converter to provide a digital output.

History

The CCD was invented on October 17, 1969, at AT&T Bell Labs by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith.[1] and key patents associated with this discover are US Patent 3,792,322 “Buried Channel Charge Coupled Devices”  ; Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith and US Patent 3,796,927 “Three Dimensional Charge Coupled Devices” ; Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith. For their work, Boyle and Smith were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.[2]. The initial concept was a memory device, in which data could be transferred along the surface of a semiconductor. However, within a short time, the potential of the device to collect and read out signals produced by light was recognized.

Boyle and Smith were tasked by Jack Morton, Bell Labs' vice president of Electronics Technology, to create a solid-state bubble memory device. They drew inspiration from the magnetic bubble memory work being done at Bell Labs at the time. In a brainstorming session lasting less than an hour, they sketched out the basic structure of what was originally called a "charge bubble device" and outlined its principle of operation. Later this structure became known as the Charge-Coupled Device or CCD.

The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was fabricated by Michael Tompsett, George Amelio, and Bill Bertram in 1970.[3] This device had 8 bits and was a linear array. Tompsett also received a patent on the first application of CCDs for imaging applications. By 1971, Bell Labs researchers had produced the first area imaging CCD array with 100 x 100 pixels.

Basic principles

A CCD is a silicon chip with a two-dimensional array of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) capacitors. These capacitors are called "pixels" and are arranged in columns and rows. When light falls on a pixel, it generates electrons through the photoelectric effect. These electrons are stored in a potential well beneath the capacitor.

The CCD operates by shifting these stored charges from one capacitor to the next, controlled by a sequence of voltage pulses applied to the electrodes. This process is called "charge coupling". At the end of each column, the charge is amplified and converted to a voltage. By repeating this process for each row, the entire image can be read out.

Key features of CCDs include:

1. High sensitivity to light

2. Low noise

3. Good linearity and dynamic range

4. Ability to integrate light over long periods

Structure and operation

A typical CCD consists of several main components:

1. Photosensitive area: An array of MOS capacitors that convert light into electrical charge.

2. Shift register: A series of electrodes that move the charge packets across the device.

3. Output amplifier: Converts the charge packets into a voltage signal.

4. Control circuitry: Generates the timing signals to operate the device.

The operation of a CCD can be broken down into four main steps:

1. Charge generation: Photons striking the silicon create electron-hole pairs.

2. Charge collection: The electrons are collected in potential wells beneath the electrodes.

3. Charge transfer: The collected charge is shifted across the device by manipulating the voltages on the electrodes.

4. Charge measurement: The charge is converted to a voltage and amplified.

Types of CCDs

Several types of CCD architectures have been developed:

1. Full-frame CCD: The entire array is used for both image capture and readout. This requires a mechanical shutter to prevent smearing during readout.

2. Frame-transfer CCD: The array is divided into two areas - one for image capture and one for storage. The image is quickly transferred to the storage area, allowing for faster operation.

3. Interline-transfer CCD: Alternating columns of pixels are masked for storage. This allows for electronic shuttering but reduces the light-sensitive area.

4. Time-delay and integration (TDI) CCD: Used for imaging moving objects, this type of CCD shifts the charge in synchronization with the object's movement.

Applications

CCDs have found widespread use in various fields:

1. Digital photography: CCDs were the dominant image sensor in digital cameras until the mid-2000s when CMOS sensors became more prevalent.

2. Astronomy: CCDs are widely used in telescopes due to their high sensitivity and ability to integrate light over long periods.

3. Spectroscopy: CCDs are used to detect and measure light in spectroscopic instruments.

4. Medical imaging: CCDs are used in various medical imaging devices, including those for endoscopy and microscopy.

5. Machine vision: CCDs are used in industrial applications for quality control and automation.

Limitations and alternatives

While CCDs offer excellent image quality, they have some limitations:

1. Blooming: When a pixel becomes saturated with charge, it can overflow into adjacent pixels.

2. Smearing: In some CCD architectures, bright light sources can cause vertical streaks in the image.

3. Power consumption: CCDs typically require higher voltages and consume more power than CMOS sensors.

4. Cost: The specialized manufacturing process for CCDs makes them more expensive than CMOS sensors.

Due to these limitations, CMOS image sensors have largely replaced CCDs in many consumer applications, particularly in smartphones and low-cost digital cameras. However, CCDs continue to be used in high-end scientific and industrial applications where their superior image quality is crucial.

Nobel Prize

In 2009, Willard Boyle and George E. Smith were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics "for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit – the CCD sensor".[2] They shared the prize with Charles K. Kao, who was recognized for his work on fiber optic communication.

The Nobel Committee highlighted the importance of the CCD in digital imaging technology and its wide-ranging applications in science and everyday life. The invention of the CCD has been described as a cornerstone in the development of digital photography and has had a profound impact on fields such as astronomy, medicine, and consumer electronics.

[1] W.S. Boyle and G. E. Smith, "Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices" BSTJ 29 January 1970, pp 587-593

[2] The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009. NobelPrize.org.

[3] Tompsett M. F, et al "Charge-Coupled Imaging Devices: Experimental Results" IEEE Trans on Electron Devices v ED-18, No.11, November 1971, pp992-996

What obstacles (technical, political, geographic) needed to be overcome?

The invention of the CCD was sparked by the commercial need for a compact solid-state based memory which could be read out in a serial fashion, similar to the magnetic bubble memory. The inventors quickly realized that their solution could solve an even more challenging problem: the accurate collection and read-out of charges induced by photons illuminating a photo-sensitive area integrated on a semiconductor. Building the first operational CCD required the development and processing of precise and novel semiconductor layers to capture, isolate and hold the photo-induced charges. Additionally, it required a completely new electronic circuit to accurately transfer these charges to the perimeter of the CCD array such that they could be read out sequentially and a 2-D image could be formed.

What features set this work apart from similar achievements?

The CCD array was the first implementation of a fully integrated solid-state imager. It combined the collection, storage and read-out of photon-induced charges in a single two-dimensional array. It enabled the capture and read-out of high-quality images using a very compact form factor. As such, CCD's were rapidly adopted and revolutionized the field of photography and video recording until then dominated by film or vacuum tubes. Thanks to their high sensitivity spanning from infrared to UV, CCD's enabled many scientific discoveries in fields like astronomy.

Why was the achievement successful and impactful?

After its invention in 1969, the development of the CCD and its introduction in many different applications progressed at a fast pace. The first CCD-based digital camera was already demonstrated by Kodak in 1975. Since then, CCD's have revolutionized digital photography, TV broadcasting and imaging for astronomy. When introduced commercially, CCD sensors offered significant advantages compared to traditional TV cameras and imagers in terms of light sensitivity, noise levels, and resolution, allowing to capture finer details in low-light conditions. Thanks to the compactness and relatively low cost of CCD's, digital photography has now become mainstream in our society. Today, CMOS integration has further reduced cost and power of integrated cameras making them ubiquitous in everyday life. CCDs continue to be used in high-end scientific and industrial applications where their superior image quality is crucial.

Supporting texts and citations to establish the dates, location, and importance of the achievement: Minimum of five (5), but as many as needed to support the milestone, such as patents, contemporary newspaper articles, journal articles, or chapters in scholarly books. 'Scholarly' is defined as peer-reviewed, with references, and published. You must supply the texts or excerpts themselves, not just the references. At least one of the references must be from a scholarly book or journal article. All supporting materials must be in English, or accompanied by an English translation.

W.S. Boyle and G. E. Smith, "Charge Coupled Semiconductor Devices" BSTJ 29 January 1970, pp 587-593

Tompsett M. F, et al "Charge-Coupled Imaging Devices: Experimental Results" IEEE Trans on Electron Devices v ED-18, No.11, November 1971, pp992-996

W.S. Boyle, G.E. Smith, "Charge coupled devices - A new approach to MIS device structures" IEEE Spectrum v8, #7, 1971

US Patent 3796927 12 March 1974, "Three Dimensional Charge Coupled Devices"

W.S. Boyle, G.E. Smith, "The Inception of Charge-Coupled Devices" IEEE Trans on Electron Devices v ED-23, #7 1976 pp661-663

References

1. Boyle, W. S., & Smith, G. E. (1970). Charge coupled semiconductor devices. Bell System Technical Journal, 49(4), 587-593.

2. Amelio, G. F., Bertram, W. J., & Tompsett, M. F. (1970). Charge-coupled imaging devices: Design considerations. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 18(11), 986-992.

3. Tompsett, M. F., Amelio, G. F., Bertram, W. J., Buckley, R. R., McNamara, W. J., Mikkelsen, J. C., & Sealer, D. A. (1970). Charge-coupled imaging devices: Experimental results. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 18(11), 992-996.

4. Boyle, W. S., & Smith, G. E. (1976). Charge coupled semiconductor devices. IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, 23(7), 661-663.

5. Janesick, J. R. (2001). Scientific charge-coupled devices. SPIE press.

6. Fossum, E. R. (1997). CMOS image sensors: Electronic camera-on-a-chip. IEEE transactions on electron devices, 44(10), 1689-1698.

7. The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023.

Supporting materials (supported formats: GIF, JPEG, PNG, PDF, DOC): All supporting materials must be in English, or if not in English, accompanied by an English translation. You must supply the texts or excerpts themselves, not just the references. For documents that are copyright-encumbered, or which you do not have rights to post, email the documents themselves to ieee-history@ieee.org. Please see the Milestone Program Guidelines for more information.

Please email a jpeg or PDF a letter in English, or with English translation, from the site owner(s) giving permission to place IEEE milestone plaque on the property, and a letter (or forwarded email) from the appropriate Section Chair supporting the Milestone application to ieee-history@ieee.org with the subject line "Attention: Milestone Administrator." Note that there are multiple texts of the letter depending on whether an IEEE organizational unit other than the section will be paying for the plaque(s).

Please recommend reviewers by emailing their names and email addresses to ieee-history@ieee.org. Please include the docket number and brief title of your proposal in the subject line of all emails.